Battery Electric Vehicles | NIST

Types of Electric Vehicles

• A battery electric vehicle (BEV) is a vehicle that operates using the charge from a battery pack. The battery pack is powered by plugging into an outlet and using electricity to recharge the battery pack, with no gasoline engine. A BEV is dependent on being charged to operate.
• A hybrid vehicle is a vehicle that runs on gasoline has a battery that is re-charged by driving but does not plug in to charge. 
• A plug-in hybrid vehicle (PHEV) can be recharged using electricity and has a gasoline engine, so the vehicle can be powered through the battery pack or by the gasoline engine.

   

BEV Batteries and Cost

The battery of a BEV is one of the most expensive components of the vehicle. There is a positive correlation between the manufacturer’s suggested retail price (MSRP) and the range of a BEV battery, which can be seen in Fig. 3. While the range of the battery is one of the largest costs, there are other features that vary between different BEVs on the market, which accounts for some of the additional variation in price across different BEVs.

Adoption

Adoption of electric vehicles has been increasing in the United States and around the world. Drivers of electric vehicle adoption are the factors that influence or predict who will adopt an electric vehicle. Additionally, there are some barriers to electric vehicle adoption, which are limiting factors that prevent someone from adopting an electric vehicle. 

Drivers of Adoption: 

• Early adopters of electric vehicles were more likely to be male, younger, and with higher levels of educational attainment.
• There are mixed results on the impact that having a multicar household has on BEV adoption. 
• Concern around the environment and the impacts of climate change has been documented in multiple studies as a motiving factor for electric vehicle adoption. 
• Interest in new technology and being a technological innovator is also linked to electric vehicle adoption.
• The lower cost of maintenance and fuel costs is also a driver of electric vehicle adoption.

Barriers to Adoption: 

• The lifetime of a battery as well as the replacement of the battery if it fails is a barrier to electric vehicle adoption. 
• Access to charging stations is critical for electric vehicle adoption. Approximately one third of counties in the United States do not have a single public charging outlet.
• Range anxiety is a barrier to electric vehicle adoption. Often potential BEV purchasers are worried about running out of range or not being able to recharge when they need to.

Considerations for Pre-Owned BEVs:

• Research shows varied willingness to pay for a pre-owned EV among consumers. 
• However, if refurbished batteries were an option, the willingness to pay was higher among more than half of the survey participants.
• The longevity and lifetime of batteries in BEVs is extremely important to the pre-owned electric vehicle market. 

Battery Specific Information

• BEV batteries typically have a warranty of 8 to 10 years, with some level of expected degradation, and it is likely that the warranty of the first-ever mass-produced BEV batteries is coming to an end.
• Due to externalities like supply chain constraints and price volatility, the shift since 2021 has been towards Lithium-Iron-Phosphate (LFP) chemistry in the batteries for BEVs. 
• In terms of environmental emissions, BEV’s production phase, particularly battery production, is more carbon-intensive than its fossil fuel-powered counterparts.
• Charging frequency and speed of charging impacts the longevity and range of a battery in a BEV.
• Comparing the Total cost of ownership (TCO) of BEV and Internal combustion Engine (ICE) is not straight forward because the TCO of a BEV largely depends on the driver behaviors and driving patterns.
• When the battery in a plug-in hybrid EV gets worn out, the vehicle’s fuel efficiency decreased due to increased reliance on gasoline. 
• End-of-life management for the battery is also critical. There is a critical need for developing sustainable recycling technology and policies. 
• Second usage of batteries for energy storage is also a commonly explored pathway for end-of-life management of the battery.

For more information please see NIST TN 2306.