I am grateful to Erich Battistin, Martina Bjorkman Nyqvist, Konrad Burchardi, Luis Crouch, Lee Crawfurd, Jonathan de Quidt, Jishnu Das, Tore Ellingsen, Clement Imbert, Karthik Muralidharan, Geeta Kingdon, Gaurav Khanna, Derek Neal, Lant Pritchett, Mauricio Romero and several seminar participants for insightful comments. I am also grateful to officials at the Government of Andhra Pradesh – in particular, Ms. Sandhya Rani and Mr. Santhosh Singh – as well as staff at the Central Square Foundation, especially Rahul Ahluwalia, Saloni Gupta, Neil Maheshwari and Devika Kapadia, for their collaboration. Ramamurthy Sripada, Nawar Al Ebadi and Edoardo Bollati provided outstanding field management and research assistance.This project was supported by the Research in Improving Systems of Education (RISE) program funded by DFID. Ethical approval for fieldwork was obtained from the Institutional Review Board of JPAL South Asia at the Institute for Financial Management and Research.